Discuss ethical considerations related to research studies at the cognitive level of analysis.

Introduction

  • State what you are doing in the essay 
    • This essay will attempt to offer a balanced review of ethical considerations related to research at the cognitive level of analysis (CLA). 
  • Define the cognitive level of analysis 
    • The cognitive level of analysis (CLA) is based on mental processes such as perception, attention, language, memory, and thinking. 
  • Describe ethical considerations 
    • In psychology, ethics must be considered to ensure participants (humans and animals) are not harmed and that research conducted is ethically valid
    • Researchers should always conduct research in an ethical manner and studies should always be critically evaluated for ethical issues. 
    • Ethical standards made by the American Psychology Association (APA) that all research done in psychology must abide by.
    • These ethics are: 
      • Protection of participants 
        • Participants should be protected from physical and mental harm and distress 
        • This includes humiliation, stress, injury, etc. 
        • Participants should not be forced to reveal personal information. 
      • Consent 
        • Participants must be informed of the true aims and nature of research before giving consent
        • Sometimes it is not possible to give full information about research. 
          • Participant bias: knowing the true aims of a study may affect participants' behaviour and thus the results of a study 
          • It is considered acceptable not to give full informed consent if no harm is expected 
      • A guardian or family member should also give consent to the study if the participants are 
        • Children under 18 years of age 
        • Adults incompetent of understanding the true nature and aims of the study 
      • Right to withdraw 
        • Participants should be informed of their right to withdraw their participation and data at any time in the study (even at the end) without penalty. 
      • Confidentiality 
        • Data collected in a study should remain confidential and anonymous to protect participants from possible consequences that may result from their data 
      • Deception
        • Deception should be avoided
        • But slight deception is considered acceptable if: 
          • Participant bias would result from participants knowing the true aims of the study 
          • The research has potential significant contribution 
          • It is unavoidable 
          • The deception does not cause any distress to the participant, including upon being informed of the deception
        • If deception is involved, informed consent is not obtained 
        • Any deception must be revealed at the earliest opportunity 
      • Debriefing 
        • Any deception must be revealed and justified
        • Participants should leave the study without undue stress 
        • Findings of the research should be made available to participants as soon as possible

Body

Evidence

Study 1: ‘Genie’ Curtiss (1981)

Background:

  • Genie was a girl who had been deprived of normal exposure to language early in life 
  • She had no apparent language skills when she was discovered at age 13. 

Aim: 

  • To investigate the sensitive period hypothesis there is a sensitive learning period (before puberty) during which language must be acquired to develop normally. 
Method: 

  • Researchers encouraged her to verbalise and socialise. 
  • They communicated with her, taught her sign language, and provided a caring environment for Genie. 

Ethical issues of this study:

  • There were a set of ethical issues in this study, which include:

Participant Protection

  • Genie was protected from harm during the study 
  • But when researchers concluded the study, Genie was left to live in an adult foster home 
    • Genie may have experienced mental distress from the dramatic change in environment and carers and the leaving of the researchers 

Consent 

  • Genie could not be fully informed or give consent to the study due to language restrictions and mental state 
  • But Genie was not in a healthy state of mind to understand the nature and aims of the study 
    • Therefore, it may not be possible to gain informed consent 

Withdrawal 

  • Genie would not be able to express any desires to withdraw from the study due to language restrictions and mental state 
Confidentiality 

  • Her identity was kept anonymous as 'Genie' is not her real name 
  • Although her real name was not revealed, her case was exposed to the world of psychology 

Debriefing 

  • Genie was not debriefed at the end of the study 
  • She ended up living in an adult foster home, still requiring treatment as she is still language impaired. 
  • However, since she did not know that she was being studied, she would not desire a debriefing. 

Inappropriate behaviour of researchers 

  • Researchers had a very personal and attached relationship with Genie 
  • This was inappropriate for scientific research 
  • Leads to the questioning of objectivity and their aims for studying Genie 

Study 2: Clive Wearing Sacks (2007)

Background: 

  • Clive Wearing was a musician who got a viral infection encephalitis. 
  • This left him with serious brain damage in the hippocampus, which caused memory impairment. 
  • He suffers: 
    • anterograde amnesia impairment in ability to remember after a particular incident 
    • retrograde amnesia impairment in ability to remember before a particular incident. 
  • Wearing still has ability to talk, read, write, and sight-read music (procedural knowledge) 
  • He could not transfer information from STM tLTM. 
  • His memory lasted 7-30 seconds, and he was unable to form new memories. 

Ethical issues of this study

  • There were a set of ethical issues in this study, which include:

Consent

  • Wearing did not give consent to being in a study 
    • His wife gave consent for him to be studied 
  • But Wearing would not remember being informed of the study or giving consent due to his short memory span 

Confidentiality 

  • Sacks violated Wearing's right to confidentiality 
    • Wearing’s real name was revealed 
    • His case was revealed to the world of psychology 
  • But since Wearing's memory lasts a short period of time, he would not remember that his confidentiality was violated 

Withdraw 

  • Wearing would not remember being in a study or his right to withdraw and so would not express any desires to withdraw 
Debriefing 

  • Wearing was not debriefed 
  • But because of his short memory span, he would not know he is in a study and would not desire a debriefing

APA Guidelines for Animal Research 

  • Tries to avoid harm to animals 
    • But harm may still be inflicted on animals, 
      • The research may potentially provide significant benefit to the health or welfare of humans or other animals 
      • If it is unavoidable 
  • If the procedure would cause pain to humans, it should be assumed that it will cause pain to animals 
  • Animal welfare should be monitored 
  • Animals should be euthanized as soon as possible if research 
    • Causes long term/serious harm 
    • Affects their ability to live 
      • Normally 
      • Pain-free 

Study 3: Blakemore & Cooper (1970) “Kitten carrousel” 

Aim: 

  • To investigate the effect of exposure to spatially periodic patterns on the brains of cats 

Ethics:

Participant protection

  • 6 male cats were placed in a drum with only vertical or only horizontal lines 
  • Kittens were made to wear a cuff around the neck to prevent them seeing lines of any other orientation 
    • Cats may have experienced distress from being forced to live in a confined, unnatural environment and wearing a cuff 
  • The cats' primary visual cortex would fire in response to the lines presented in the orientation they were exposed to and not lines which were perpendicular 
    • There was physical degeneration in the visual cortex as a result of the lines the cats were exposed to 
      • Researchers caused permanent physical damage to the cats' visual cortex

Animal ethics

  • Researchers had done permanent damage to the cats that may have affected their ability to live a normal, pain-free live 
  • But the cats were not euthanized 
  • The welfare of cats was not monitored 

Consent 

  • Cats could not be fully informed about the study 
  • Cats could not give consent 
  • But cats would not be able to understand if they were being studied 
    • Therefore, it would not be possible to gain informed consent 

Withdrawal 

  • Cats could not express any desires to withdraw from the study 
Debriefing 

  • Cats were not debriefed 
  • But since they are animals and they did not know they were in a study, they may not desire a debriefing

Study 4: Gardner and Gardner (1969) “Washoe”

Aim: 

  • To demonstrate that a chimpanzee has the capability to use human language 
Ethical issues of this study:
There were a set of ethical issues in this study, which include:

Participant protection 

  • Researchers caught Washoe an infant female chimp, estimated to be 8-14 months old and reared her as a human child in America 
  • They attempted to teach Washoe American Sign Language (ASL) 
    • Washoe may have experienced distress from being removed from her natural environment, living in an unnatural environment and learning sign language

Consent

  • Washoe could not be fully informed about the study 
  • Washoe could not give consent 
  • But Washoe would not be able to understand if she was being studied 
    • Therefore, it would not be possible to gain informed consent 

Withdrawal 

  • Washoe could not express any desires to withdraw from the study due to language restrictions 
Debriefing 

  • Washoe was not debriefed 
  • But since Washoe is an animal and may not have not known she was in a study, she may not desire a debriefing 

Conclusion 

  • Ethical considerations in all research in psychology includes, 
    • Protection of participants from harm 
    • Consent
    • Withdrawal
    • Confidentiality 
    • Deception 
    • Debriefing 
  • But there are slight exceptions for consent and deception 
  • Animal research has slightly different ethical considerations 
    • Differences regard harming participants and ethical euthanasia